The Core Problem

India faces a fundamental resource contradiction: it has 17% of the population but only 4% of the global water resources. Despite this scarcity, the country plans to spend nearly $80 billion on new coal-fired power plants by 2031, with most projects located in already water-stressed areas.

Real-World Impact in Solapur

The article uses the Solapur district as a case study, where residents now wait up to a week for water during peak summer, a dramatic decline from the water flowing every other day just a decade ago. This deterioration coincided with the 2017 opening of a 1,320-megawatt NTPC coal plant that competes with residents for water from the same reservoir.

Scale of the Challenge

The situation is systemic rather than isolated:

37 of 44 new coal projects are planned for water-scarce areas
Since 2014, water shortages have already cost India 60.33 billion units of coal power generation
Indian power plants typically consume twice as much water as their global counterparts
The Solapur plant ranks as India’s least water-efficient facility

Policy Contradictions

The report reveals troubling decision-making priorities:

Land acquisition concerns often override water availability in site selection
Politicians approve projects in already water-scarce areas for economic and political benefits
The government has delayed the retirement of old, water-inefficient plants to meet surging demand

Human Cost

The article powerfully illustrates the human impact through residents like Rajani Thoke, who must plan her entire life around water availability, and farmers like Dharmes Waghmore, wcan’tn’t risk developing land due to water uncertainty.

This investigation reveals a critical planning failure in which short-term economic and political considerations are overriding long-term sustainability and the basic needs of millions of Indians. The water crisis threatens to undermine both the viability of these expensive power projects and the welfare of the communities’re are meant to serve.

India’s Water Crisis Exacerbated by Power Expansion: In-Depth Analysis

The Magnitude India’s Water Crisis

India’s water crisis represents one of the most severe resource challenges facing any nation today. By 203India’sa’s water demand is projected to be twice the available supply, putting hundreds of millions at risk and threatening 6% of GDP losses. The Looming Water Crisis: A Threat to India’s Future – International Centre for Sustainability. The situation is already critical: 200,000 people die annually due to inadequate access to safe drinking water. Water Crisis in India – Reasons, Impact, and Government Initiatives – PMF IAS. India is expected to become a water-scarce nation by 2025. Water scarcity in India – Wikipedia.

Current Water Availability Projections

Water availability per capita is projected to reduce to 1,341 cubic meters by 2025 and 1,140 cubic meters by 2050.. Water Crisis in India – Reasons, Impact, Government Initiatives – PMF IAS. This represents a dramatic decline from already insufficient levels, pushing India below the international water scarcity threshold of 1,000 cubic meters per person annually.

The Power Sector’s Water Consumption Crisis

Scale of Water Demand from Coal Plants

The thermal power sector’s water consumption is staggering. Thermal energy, which constitutes more than 70%, is increasing. Water Stress is a Threat to the Energy Sector in India | World Resources Institute. India’s power generation requires substantial quantities of water for cooling and operational purposes. According to the Reuters investigation, Indian power plants typically consume twice as much water as their global counterparts, rendering them exceptionally inefficient.

Geographic Mismatch

The most problematic aspect is the geographic distribution of new projects. According to the power ministry document reviewed by Reuters, 37 of 44 new coal projects are planned for water-scarce areas. This represents a fundamental planning failure where energy security is prioritised over water sustainability.

Quantified Losses

The water crisis is already severely impacting power generation. Since 2014, India has lost 60.33 billion units of coal power generation due to water shortages, equivalent to 19 days of coal power supply at current levels. This demonstrates how water scarcity is becoming a critical constraint on energy security.

Case Studies of Water-Power Conflicts

Solapur: A Microcosm of the Crisis

The Solapur case illustrates the human cost of poor planning:

Water availability for residents declined from every other day to once per week
The NTPC plant sources water from 120 kilometres away, increasing costs and theft risks
The plant ranks India’s least water-efficient facilities
Local irrigation demand already exceeds supply by one-third

Chandrapur: Scaling Up the Problem

The Chandrapur Super Thermal Power Station, one India’sa’s largest, exemplifies the systemic nature of the crisis:

The 2,920 MW plant regularly shuts down units during droughts
Plans for the 800 MW expansion lack identified water sources
The retirement of inefficient older units has been delayed by seven years
Local protests have forced water diversions from the plant to residents

Policy and Governance Failures

Prioritisation of Land over Water

Federal groundwater officials confirm that concerns over concerns over land acquisition dominate site selection over water availability. This reflects India’s complex land laws, which can delay projects for years, prompting developers to seek areas with minimal resistance, often in regions with water scarcity.

Political Incentives

Local politicians often support large infrastructure projects for economic and political benefits, with water problems emerging only after the construction is complete. The approval of the Solapur plan in a water-scarce power ministry ‘splifies this short-term thinking.

Regulatory Gaps

The power ministry’s position that state governments are responsible for water allocation creates coordination failures. This fragmented approach allows projects to proceed without comprehensive water impact assessments. Contest Singapore’s

Impact on Singapore: Strategic Implications

Regional Water Security to Contest Singapore’s

Singapore’s water relationship with India, while not direct, exists within the broader context of regional water security. Water is becoming a bigger point of political contention in ththethe e region. Modi says India will retain the share of water it once sent outside the country | Reuters, with growing scarcity affecting megacities and international Vulnerability in India’s

Economic and Strategic Implications for Singapore

Supply Chains to Singapore and India

India’s water crisis poses a disruption to Singapore’s economic interests:

Manufacturing Disruption Singapore’s extensive trade relationships with India could face disruptions as water-stressed regions struggle to maintain industrial production
Agricultural Impacts: Food security concerns may arise India’sa’s agricultural sector faces increasing imports to Singapore
India’s growing data centre and IT services sector, in which Singapore has significant investments, faces water constraints that could impact service delivery.

Investment and Financial Risks for Singapore

Singapore’s financial sector, which has substantial exposure to Indian markets, faces climate-related financial risks:

Infrastructure Investments: Singaporean investments in Indian infrastructure may face higher risks due to water scarcity
Energy Sector Exposure: Investments in Indian power generation face operational risks from water shortages
Real Estate and Development: Urban development projects in water-stressed Indian cities may face viability challenges

Lessons from Singapore’s Water Strategy

Reinforcing Water Independence India’s

India reinforces Singapore’s strategic focus on water independence. Total water demand in Singapore is projected to almost double by 2065. The 1962 Johor-Singapore Water Agreement: Lessons Learned – The country’smaking tcountry’sy’s Four Taps strategy increasingly critical:

Diversification Imperative India’s over-reliance on rainfall and single sources demonstrates the risks of water dependence
Technology Investment Singapore’s investment in desalination and water recycling technologies becomes more strategically valuable.
Regional Cooperation: The crisis highlights the importance of Singapore’s careful management of water relationships with Malaysia

Innovation and Technology Opportunities in India’s

India’s water crisis presents an opportunity for Singapore’s water technology sector.

Singapore’s expertise in efficient desalination addresses India’s coastal water needs.
Water Recycling: Advanced water treatment technologies developed in Singapore could help Indian cities manage water scarcity
Smart Water Management Singapore’s digital..l water management systems could be adapted for Indian conditions.

Geopolitical Implications

Regional Stability Concerns India’s

India’s water crisis has broader regional implications that affect Singapore:

Migration Pressures: Water-induced displacement could create regional migration pressures
Conflict Potential: India has suspended the Indus Waters Treaty, threatening to block Pakistan’s vital water supplies and risking regional stability. Race to Self-sufficiency in Malaysia: Water Clash
Economic Disruption: Regional economic integration could be disrupted by water-related conflicts

ASEAN Water Security and India’s

India’s crisis highlights the importance of proactive water management across ASEAN:

Collective Action: The crisis demonstrates the need for regional cooperation on water security
Early Warning System Singapore’s experience with water planning could inform regional approaches
Technology Sharing Singapore’s water innovations could be shared regionally to prevent similar crises

Strategic Recommendations for Singapore

Immediate Actions

Risk Assessment: Conduct comprehensive assessments of Singaporean investments and supply chains exposed to Indian water risks
Diversification: Accelerate diversification of supply chains away from water-stressed Indian regions
Technology Deployment: Explore partnerships to deploy Singaporean water technologies in India

Medium-term Strategy

Water Diplomacy: Strengthen water-focused diplomatic relationships with regional partners
Innovation Acceleration: Increase investment in water technology R&D to capture growing market opportunities
Enhancing Singapore’s own water resilience systems based on lessons from India’s crisis

Long-term Positioning

Regional Hub: Position Singapore as a regional centre for water security expertise and technology
Climate Adaptation: Use insights from India’s crisis to strengthen Singapore’s climate adaptation strategies
Sustainable Development: Integrate water security considerations into all regional development partnerships

Conclusion

India’s water crisis, exacerbated by poorly planned power expansion, represents a critical challenge with far-reaching implications for regional stability and economic development. For Singapore, while geographically distant from the immediate crisis, the implications are significant across economic, strategic, and security dimensions.

The crisis reinforces the wisdom of Singapore’s water independence strategy while highlighting opportunities for technological cooperation and investment. Most critically, it demonstrates how water scarcity can become a constraint on economic development and regional stability, making proactive water management an essential component of national security strategy.

Singapore’s response to this crisis – whether through the deployment of head-jump technology, adjustments to its investment strategy, or diplomatic engagement – will be crucial for maintaining its position as a stable and prosperous hub in an increasingly water-stressed region.

India’s Water Crisis: Country Expansion’s Perfect Storm

A Comprehensive Analysis of Resource Scarcity, Energy Demands, and Human Impact

Executive Summary

India stands at the precipice of an unprecedented water crisis, one that threatens to undermine the very foundations of its economic growth and the world’s stability. With 17% of the world’s population competing for just 4% of global freshwater resources, the nation faces what experts describe as”a “perfect st”rm” of resource scarcity. This crisis is being dramatically accelerated India’sa’s ambitious $80 billion coal power expansion program, which paradoxically seeks to fuel economic growth while depleting the water resources essential for human survival and agricultural sustainability.

In 2030, India’s challenge cannot be overstated. By 2030, India’s water demand is projected to exceed the available supply, threatening the lives of millions of its citizens and potentially erasing 6% of the nation’s GDP. Yet despite these alarming projections, 37 of 44 new coal-fired power plants are being constructed in areas already classified as water-scarce or water-stressed, creating a feedback loop of resource depletion that could prove catastrophic.

Chapter 1: The Anatomy of Crisis

The Numbers That Define Catastrophes in India

India’s water statistics paint a picture of an impending disaster that extends far beyond the current management challenges of its water sources. The current per capita water availability of approximately 1.5 litres per year is projected to plummet to 1 cubic meter by 2025 and further decline to 1.140 cubic meters by 2050. These figures place India dangerously close to the international definition of water scarcity—1,000 cubic meters per person annually.

The human cost is already staggering. An estimated 200,000 Indians die each year due to inadequate access to safe drinking water, while 600 million people face high to extreme water stress daily. In rural areas, women and children walkkilometrese of 2.5 kilometres to collect water, consuming precious hours that could be devoted to education or economic activity.

Geographic Distribution of Scarcity in India

India’s water crisis is not uniformly distributed across the subcontinent. The Deccan Plateau, encompassing much of central and southern India, faces the most severe challenges. States like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh regularly experience drought conditions, with some regions receiving, g less than 500mm of annual rainfall—insufficient to recharge groundwater aquifers or sustain rain-fed agriculture.

Considered India’s plain, traditionally regarded as India’s agricultural heartland, faces its own water challenges. Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation has created massive cone-shaped depressions in the water table, with some areas experiencing drops of more than 4 meters annof India. Once the poster child of India’s Green Revolution, it now faces an environmental reckoning as its groundwater reserves approach depletion.

Coastal regions present a different but equally serious challenge. Saltwater intrusion has contaminated freshwater aquifers in states such as Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, forcing communities to rely increasingly on surface water sources that are also under stress.

Chapter Coal’s Thirst – The Energy-Water Nexus

The Scale of Thermal Power’s Water Application in India

India’s commitment to coal-fired power generation represents one of the most water-intensive industrial undertakings in human history. Thermal power plants, which account for more than 70% India’sa’s electricity generation, require massive quantities of water for multiple purposes: steam generation, cooling tower operations, ash handling, and emissions control systems.

A typical 1,000 MW coal-fired power plant consumes between 22-30 million liters of water daily during peak operationIndia’sa’s planned expansion of 66,000 MW of new coal capacity by 2031 would theoretically require an additional 1.5-2 billion liters of water daily—equivalent to the domestic water needs of approximately 75-100 million people.

The inefficiency of Indian thermal plants compounds this challenge dramatically. While international best practices suggest water consumption rates of 1.5-2.5 cubic meters per MWh of electricity generated, Indian plants typically consume 3.5-5 cubic meters per MWh. This inefficiency stems from outdated technology, poor maintenance practices, and the continued operation of subcritical plants that should have been retired decades ago.

The Geography of Misalignment of India’s

Perhaps the most troubling aspect of India’s power expansion strategy is the geographic misalignment between coal resources, water availability, and energy demand centres. The power ministry document reviewed by Reuters reveals a startling pattern: 84% of new coal projects are located in regions already classified as water-stressed or water-scarce.

This misalignment reflects fundamental flaws India’sa’s energy planning process. Coal, specifically in regions such as eastern and central India, specifically in areas like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, serves as a concentrated source, where water resources are increasingly strained. Meanwhile, the highest electricity demand originates from industrial centres and megacities in western and southern India, resulting in a complex web of resource allocation challenges.

The transportation of coal from mines to power plants, and subsequently the transmission of electricity to decentralizers, creates additional inefficiencies. More critically, it means that water-stressed regions bear the environmental costs of power generation, while the economic benefits accrue to urban centres.

Case Study: The Solapur Paradigm

The Solapur district in Maharashtra serves as a microcosm of India’s broader water-energy region. Solapur’s transformation into a water-secure region following the installation of NTPC’s 1,320 MW coal plant illustrates how energy infrastructure can fundamentally alter local hydrology and social dynamics.

Prior to 2017, residents of Solapur received piped water every other day—a schedule that, while not ideal, provided predictable access to municipal water supplies. The arrival of the NTPC plant coincided with a dramatic deterioration in water availability. During peak summer months, residents now wait up to a week between water deliveries, forcing fundamental changes in daily life patterns.

The water consumption strategy of thermal installations highlights the challenges these installations face in water-scarce regions. Unable to source adequate water locally, the facility draws from reservoirs more than a kilometre away. This solution, although technically feasible, creates multiple vulnerabilities, including increased pumping costs, transmission losses, a higher risk of supply disruption, and a potential for water theft along the transformation route.

Local residents describe the transformation in stark terms. Rajani Thoke, a mother of availability. The family’s entire routine now revolves around the availability of water. “On days with supply, I do not focus on anything other than storing water, washing clothes and such wo”k.” This represents a fundamental degradation in the quality of life, where basic dignity and comfort become secondary to the pursuit of resources.

The economic impacts extend beyond individual households. Dharmes Waghmore, a local farmer, owns land with uncertain plant growth due to water uncertainty. “What’s there’s no wat”r?” he asks, highlighting how water scarcity creates economfavourableesis even when other development factors are favourable.

The Chandrapur Catastrophe

The Chandrapur Super Thermal Power Station represents the scaling up Solapur’sr’s challenges to industrial proportions. With 2,920 MW among India’s cities, Chandrapur ranks among India’s largest thermal plants, and its water consumption patterns illustrate the unsustainable trajectory of the sector.

During drought years, the plant routinely shuts down multiple units for months at a time, directly contradicting the energy security rationale used to justify its operation. Chandrapur’s TI Aayog’s capacity utilisation falls dramatically during water-stressed periods, sometimes dropping below 40% of capacity.

Tplant’s expansion plans—a,n , additional 800 MW despite existing—epitomise the disconnect between energy planning and resource reality. According to the power ministry document, this expansion lacks identified water sources, yet coal procurement has already been arranged. This cart-before-horse approach to infrastructure development virtually guarantees future water conflicts.

Local tensions have already erupted around Chandrapur’s water consumption. During the severe drought of 2017, residents protested outside the plant, demanding that industrial water be diverted to residential use. Local politicians, including Member of Parliament Sudhir Mungantiwar, were compelled to intervene, ordering temporary water diversions to appease the residents.

The social dynamics around Chandrapur reveal the political economy of water allocation in India. While Mungantiwar ordered short-term water dthe plant’suring the crisis, he continues to support the plant’s expansion, citing employment and economic development benefits. This position reflects the difficult choices facing Indian policymakers: balancing immediate economic needs with long-term sustainability.

Chapter 3: The Institutional Architecture of Failure

Federal-State Coordination in India’s

India’s water crisis is exacerbated by fundamental institutional failures that prevent coordinated resource management. The Constitution of India places water in the State List, making individual state governments responsible for water allocation. However, water generation is primarily controlled by central government entities, such as NTPC, Coal India Limited, and the Ministry of Power.

This institutional architecture creates perverse incentives. Central power authorities can site plants and secure coal supplies without meaningful consultation with state water authorities. State governments, desperate for industrial investment and employment, often approve water allocations for power projects without comprehensive impact assessments.

The case of Solapur illustrates this dynamic perfectly. The plant was approved in 2008 by federal power minister Sushilkumar Shinde, who later acknowledged that the area was already classified as “s “water scarce.” Shinde defended the decision by focusing on land acquisition negotiations and employee concerns, er explicitly dismissing water concerns as manageable through technical solutions.

The Land Acquisition Imperative

According to federal groundwater board officials, concerns about land acquisition dominate the siting of power plants. This prioritisation reflects India’s notoriously complex land laws, which can delay commercial projects for years or even decades.

Rudrodip Majumdar, an energy and environment professor at the National Institute Advancelogiclogicudies in Bengaluru, explains the logi: “They look for areas with easy land availability – minimum resistance for maximum land – even if water is available only far aw”y.” This approach creates a selection bias in marginally marginalised regions where land can be acquired at a low cost and with minimal political resistance.

The social dynamics of land acquisition further compound water challenges. Power companies and government officials often frame projects in terms of economic development and employment generation, appealing to communities desperate for industrial investment. The promise of construction jobs and ongoing employment often overshadows concerns about the long-term impacts on water on water.

In Solapur, former Minister Mr Shin stated that “there was nothing” in the district in 2008, implying that any economic activity was preferable to the status quo. This dismissive attitude toward existing agricultural and social systems reflects a broader development that prioritises large-scale industrial projects over traditional livelihoods.

Regulatory Capture and Political Economy

The relationship between power companies, politicians, and local communities reveals patterns of regulatory capture that perpetuate unsustainable water use. Researcher Shripad Dharmadhikary, founder of environment advocacy group Manthan Adhyayan Kendra, notes that local politicians often support high-profile infrastructure projects to boost their popularity, wi”h problems coming up much lat”r.”

This short-term political calculus of consistency in what economists ca”l “time consistency” problems. Politicians receive immediate credit for attracting investment and creating employment, while the impacts of water scarcity emerge gradually over years or decades. By the time problems become apparent, political responsibility has shifted to other officials or levels of government.

The employment argument deserves particular scrutiny. While power plants do create jobs during construction, permanent employment is typically limited to a few hundred highly skilled positions. The Solapur plant, for example, employs about 2,500 people, a tiny fraction of the district’s workforce. Meanwhile, water scarcity threatens agricultural employment that supports hundreds of thousands of families.

Chapter 4: Technical Solutions and Their Limitations

Water Efficiency Technologies

The power sector’s response to water scarcity has focused primarily on technical solutions aimed at reducing consumption per unit of electricity generated. These approaches include:

Dry Cooling Systems: Air-cooled condensers can eliminate the need for water-based cooling towers, resulting in reduced water consumption at the plant. However, dry cooling in plant water consumption systems is significantly more expensive to install and operate, resulting in a 2-4% reduction in plant efficiency and a 5-10% increase in electricity costs.

Hybrid Cooling: Enables wet and optimising systems according to plants to optimise water use based on seasonal availability and ambient conditions. During water-scarce periods, plants can shift to dry cooling, accepting reduced efficiency to conserve water.

Water Recycling and Treatment: Advanced treatment systems can enable plants to reuse cooling water multiple times, reducing freshwater intake. Some plants achieve water recycling rates of over 7%, although this requires significant investment in treatment infrastructure.

Alternative Water Sources: Some plants utilise treated wastewater, seawater, or brackish groundwater as an alternative to freshwater. However, these alternatives often require expensive pre-treatment and can create other environmental challenges.

Implementation Challenges

Despite the availability of water-efficient technologies, adoption rates in India remain low due to several factors:

Capital Constraints: Water-efficient technologies typically require 15-25% higher capital investment, which power companies resist India’sa’s competitive electricity market.

Performance Penalties: Most water-saving technologies in India are inefficient, particularly problematic given India’s already poor thermal efficiency standards.

Maintenance Complexity: Advanced cooling and treatment systems require sophisticated maintenance capabilities that many Indian plants lack.

Regulatory Incentives: Current electricity regulations do not adequately incentivise water conservation, focusing primarily on cost minimisation without considering environmental externalities.

The Solapur plant exemplifies these challenges. Despite being among India’s least water-efficient facilities, the plant was recently cited in India’s records as meeting national efficiency standards; however, these norms themselves are far below international standards.

The Limits of Technical Fixes

Even the best technologies cannot solve India’s fundamental water-energy contradiction. A comprehensive analysis by the Delhi-based Centre for Technology found that even with the existing available cooling technology, India’s planned thermal expansion would still require water consumption equivalent to the domestic needs of 400-500 million people.

This calculation assumes that all new plants adopt advanced cooling systems and achieve international efficiency standards—assumptions that current evidence suggests are overly optimistic. More realistically, continued expansion using current practices would require water equivalent to the domestic needs of 800 million to 1 billion people.

The temporal dimension of technological solutions presents additional challenges. Retrofitting existing plants with advanced cooling systems requires significant central capacity and extended outages, as India’s electricity grid cannot easily accommodate such changes. New plants take 6-8 years from planning to operation, meaning that even accelerated adoption of efficient technologies cannot address near-term water stress.

Chapter 5: The Human Dimension of Crisis

Gendered Impacts of Water Scarcity

Water scarcity in India disproportionately affects women and girls, who are traditionally responsible for collecting water for their households. In water-stressed regions around thermal plants, women report spending 3-6 hours daily collecting water, compared to 1-2 hours in areas with a regular supply.

This time burden has cascading effects on education, employment, and health. Girls often miss school during severe water stress periods, while women cannot pursue income-generating activities. The physical strain of carrying water over long distances contributes to musculoskeletal problems and an increased risk of pregnancy complications.

In Solapur, women describe fundamental changes in household routines. Cooking patterns have shifted toward requiring those who require less have reduced their practices. These adaptations represent significant degradations in quality of life that are rarely captured in economic assessments of power projects.

Health Consequences

The health impacts of water scarcity extend far beyond dehydration. Reduced water availability forces communities to use contaminated sources, leading to an increased incidence of waterborne diseases. In thermal plant regions, ash contamination from coal burning often pollutes local water sources, creating additional health risks.

Heat stress, exacerbated by water scarcity, poses particular dangers in regions where thermal plants increase local temperatures. The urban heat island effect around large industrial installations can raise local temperatures by 2-4 degrees Celsius, while reduced water availability eliminates traditional cooling practices.

Malnutrition rates increase in water-stressed regions as agricultural productivity declines and food preparation becomes more difficult. Children are particularly vulnerable, with stunting and wasting rates significantly higher in areas facing severe water stress.

Migratidriving Social Disruption

Water scarcity increasingly drives internal migration within India, with peasants abandoning agricultural areas for urban centres. This climate-induced migration creates social tensions in destination cities while depleting human capital in rural areas.

The phenomenon “f “water wid”ws”—women whose husbands have migrated to cities for work due to agricultural failure—has become common in water-stressed regions. These women face increased household responsibilities while losing primary income earners, creating cycles of poverty and social vulnerability.

Young people from farming families increasingly reject agricultural careers, viewing water uncertainty as incompatible with economic security. This generation poses a threat to traditional knowledge systems and agricultural practices that have sustained communities for centuries.

Chapter 6: Economic Consequences and Development Impact on India’s Slums

Agricultural Sector Impact on India’s

India’s agricultural sector, which employs approximately 600 million people, faces existential threats from water competition India’sthecotitioncompetitionr plants. Agriculture accounts for roughly 80% of India’s water consumption, making it particularly vulnerable to supply reductions.

The shift from agricultural to industrial water use represents a fundamental reallocation of economic resources. While power plants create some employment, the jobs-to-water ratio favours agriculture. One study estimated that agricultural water use supports 20-30 times more employment per unit of water than thermal power generation.

Croare p patterns abandoning changing in response to water stress. Farmers favourably favourably crops, which reduces the cultivation of rice and sugarcane cane favour of drought-resistant alternatives, thereby reducing agricultural productivity and income. In some regions, farmland is being abandoned entirely, with families selling to power companies or real estate developers.

The case of Dharmes Waghmore in Solapur illustrates these dynamics. Despite owning farmland near the power plant, he cannot afford to invest in agricultural development due to the uncertainty of water availability. Of water. This represents a form of economic paralysis where resource scarcity prevents productive investment.

Industrial Development Constraints

Paradoxically, water scarcity increasingly constrains the industrial development that power expansion is meant to enable. Manufacturing facilities require reliable water supplies for production processes, worker facilities, and cooling systems. In water-stressed regions, industrial investment becomes economically unviable regardless of power availability.

Kuladeep Jangam, a senior official in explicitly acknowledges constraints: “The lack of water neutralises all other factors for industrial development. This suggests that power plant investment may be counterproductive if it exacerbates water scarcity, which prevents other economic activities.

The technology sector, increasingly crucial to India’s economy, faces particular vulnerability to water centres. Data centres, which require massive cooling systems, cannot operate reliably in India’s diverse environments. This creates a potential conflict between India’s digital economy ambitions and its expansion of coal-fired power.

Fiscal Implications

Water scarcity creates significant fiscal costs for both state and central governments. Emergency water supply measures, including tanker deliveries Solarplant’st120-kilometreire substantial public expenditure. The Solarplant’s 120-kilometre water pipeline subsidises simple, required major government investment that ultimately subsidises private power generation.

Healthcare costs associated with water-related diseases represent another fiscal burden. Government hospitals in water-stressed regions report increased admissions for dehydration, heat stroke, and waterborne illnesses, diverting medical resources from other priorities.

Agricultural subsidies increase as governments attempt to compensate farmers for water-related crop losses. Power subsidies for groundwater pumping create additional fiscal burdens while encouraging unsustainable extraction practices.

Chapter 7: Climate Change Amplification

Precipitation Patterns altering India’s Water Supplies

Climate change is fundamentally altering India’s precipitation patterns, exacerbating water scarcity and making it more severe and unpredictable. Monsoon rainfall, which provides 75% India’sa’s annual precipitation, has become increasingly erratic. Some regions experience more intense and prolonged monsoon periods, while dry seasons become longer and more severe.

The Indian Meteorological Department reports that monsoon variability has increased significantly over the past three decades. Years of above-normal rainfall are increasingly followed by severe drought conditions, making it difficult for communities and industries to adapt to predictable patterns.

Temperature increases compound precipitation challenges. Higher temperatures increase evaporation rates from reservoirs and soil moisture, effectively reducing available water even when rainfall totals remain constant. The combination of reduced rainfall and increased evaporation creates multiplicative effects on water availability.

Extreme Weather Events

The frequency and intensity of extreme weather events in India have increased markedly, directly affecting both water availability and power generation. Severe droughts now occur approximately every 3-4 years instead of the historical pattern of once per decade.

Heat waves, which can reach temperatures exceeding 48°C (118°F), increase both electricity demand for cooling and water demand for human consumption. During extreme heat events, thermal power plants often reduce their output due to limitations in their cooling systems, resulting in electricity shortages at their peak. It’s peaky when demand peaks.

Flooding events, while temporarily increasing water availability, often damage water infrastructure and contaminate supplies. The 2019 floods in Maharashtra, for example, shut down multiple thermal plants while simultaneously destroying water treatment facilities in affected areas.

Feedback Loops and Cascading Effects

Climate change creates feedback loops that amplify water-energy conflicts. Higher temperatures increase electricity demand for cooling, requiring more power generation and, consequently, increased water consumption. This increased water use depletes aquifers and reservoirs, making regions more vulnerable to drought.

The loss of forest cover, often associated with mining and construction, can alter precipitation through changes in evaporation patterns. This creates localised climate changes that can reduce water availability in regions surrounding thermal installations.

Surrounding heat islands around large thermal complexes exacerbate local temperature increases, creating microclimates that require additional water for agricultural purposes. These effects extend several kilometres beyond plant boundaries, affecting entire watersheds.

Chapter 8: International Comparisons and Best Practice of China’s

China’s Experience

China’s industrialisation,r-energy conflicts during its rapid industrialisation, but implemented several strategies that India has yet to adopt comprehensively:

Water Pricing Reform: China introduced tiered water pricing that makes industrial users pay progressively higher rates for increased consumption. This market mechanism encourages efficiency investments without requiring direct government intervention.

Technology Mandates: New thermal plants in water-stressed regions must use dry cooling or advanced efficiency technologies, regardless of cost implications. This regulatory approach ensures that the water considerations process is integrated into project planning.

Regional Water Trading: China has developed inter-basin water transfer projects that transport water from water-deficient regions. They are mentally prioritising, but at prioritisation in China.

Renewable Energy Prioritisation China’s massive investment in solar and wind power reduces pressure on water resources while meeting growing electricity demand.

European Approaches

European countries with water constraints have developed several innovative approaches:

Integrated Resource Planning: Countries like Spain require comprehensive water-energy planning that considers both sectors simultaneously. New power projects must demo30-yar30-year water sustainability over 20-30 year periods.

Economic Instruments: Carbon pricing and water abstraction charges create market incentives for efficient resource use. Power companies factor these costs into technology selection and siting decisions.

Circular Economy Principles enable Advanced wastewater treatment, allowing industries to use recycled water, thereby reducing freshwater demand. Some thermal plants achieve 95% water recycling rates.

Middle Eastern Innovations

Water-scarce countries in the Middle East have pioneered several relevant technologies:

Seawater Cooling: Coastal thermal plants use seawater for cooling, eliminating freshwater consumption. Advanced materials prevent corrosion and environmental damage.

Hybrid Renewable-Thermal Systems: Combining solar thermal with conventional plants reduces water consumption while maintaining reliable power generation.

Desalination Integration: Some facilities combine power generation with seawater desalination, utilising waste heat to reduce the energy requirements for desalination.

Chapter 9: Future Scenarios and Pathways

Business-as-Usual Trajectory

Continuation of current policies and practices would lead to catastrophic outcomes by 2030-2035. The water demand would reach 1.5-2 times the available supply, creating permanent water emergency conditions across much of India. Resulting in migration would accelerate their increase in megacity populations that exceed infrastructure capacity.

Agricultural productivity would decline, posing a significant threat to water-stressed regions and thereby compromising food security and rural livelihoods. Power sector water consumption would increase to levels equivalent to the domestic needs of 800 million people, creating irreconcilable conflicts with human water requirements.

Health impacts would escalate dramatically, with water-related diseases becoming endemic in affected regions. Economic growth would slow as water constraints limit industrial development and agricultural productivity.

Managed Transition Scenario

A coordinated policy response could mitigate the worst outcomes while maintaining economic development:

Technology Transformation: Mandatory adoption of advanced cooling technologies for new plants, with retrofit requirements for existing facilities. This approach could reduce power sector water consumption by 10-15 years.

Regional Specialisation: Power generation would shift toward water-abundant coastal regions, with long-distance transmission compensating for geographical separation from demand centres.

Agricultural Adaptation: Systematic transition to drought-resistant crops and precision irrigation technologies. Government support would help farmers adapt without economic hardship.

Water Pricing Reform: Market-based water allocation would encourage efficient use while generating and maintaining revenue for infrastructure investment.

Renewable Energy Transition

Accelerated deployment of India’s water-energy dynamics:

India’s excellent solar resources could provide 60-70% of electricity needs with minimal water consumption. Distributed solar reduces transmission losses and increaseAdvancements in battery technology make

Energy Storage: Advancements in battery technology are making renewable energy increasingly viable for baseload power, thereby reducing dependence on thermal generation.

Green can be used to produce hydrogen: Surplus renewable energy can be utilised to produce hydrogen for industrial processes and long-term energy storage, creating new economic opportunities.

Just Transition: Comprehensive supptsupportfor coal-dependent communities would ensure that the renewable energy transition does not create new social problems.

Chapter 10: Policy Recommendations and Implementation Strategies

Immediate Actions (0-2 years)

Emergency Water Allocation Framework: Establish clear priorities for water use during scarcity perioPrioritisingzing human consumption over industrial uses. Create legaperiods, periods of low water shortage, during extreme shortage periods.

Technology Mandates: Require all new thermal plants in water-stressed regions to use dry cooling or advanced efficiency technologies. Provide transition periods and financial support for compliance.

Data Integration: Develop comprehensive water-energy monitoring systems that track consumption, efficiency, and availability in real-time. Make this information publicly available to enable informed decision-making.

Stakeholder Engagement: Establish formal processes that incorporate local community consultation, providing local communities with meaningful input into power plant siting and water allocation decisions.

Medium-term Reforms (2-5 years)

Institutional Restructuring: Establish integrated water-energy planning authorities at the regional levels. These bodies would have authority over both sectors and responsibility for sustainable resource management.

Economic Instruments: Implement progressive water pricing for industrial users, with rates that reflect actual scarcity values. Use revenue to fund efficiency improvements and alternative supply development.

Technology Support: Create financial mechanisms to support the Offerant retrofits with efficient cooling systems.to support low-interest loans and technical assistance for the adoption of technology.

Alternative Development: Develop comparable energy manufacturing and deployment capabilities. Create employment opportunities in the clean energy sector to mitigate job losses in the coal industry.

Long-term TrTransformation5-15 years)

Energy System Transition: Achieve 70-80% renewable electricity by 2040, with remaining thermal capacity reserved for peak demand and system stability. This would reduce power sector water consumption by 60-70%.

Regional Integration: Develop inter-state water trading mechanisms and infrastructure to enable efficient allocation across geographic boundaries. Modernisation is transforming for long-term maximising.

Agricultural Modernisation maximises farming systems to maximise productivity per unit of farmland consumed. Provide comprehensive support for farmer training to maximise sustainable practices.

Urban planning efforts: Redesign cities to minimise water consumption and maximise recycling. Integrate water considerations to ensure sustainable water management in all infrastructure development decisions.

Chapter 11: The Path Forward

Political Economy of Reform

Implementing necessary changes requires overcoming significant political and economic obstacles. Coal mining and power generation provide employment for millions of people, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions. Any transition strategy must address the legitimate concerns of the constituencies about economic security.

Regional political dynamics further complicate reform efforts. Coal-producing states derive significant revenue from mining royalties and power plant operations. Their reliance on fossil fuels, however, may lead tos that might reduce fossil fuel dependence, even when such policies would improve overall national welfare.

The role of private sector incentives cannot be ignored. Power companies have invested hundreds of billions of dollars in coal-fired infrastructure and resist policies that might render these assets obsolete. Creating pathways for managed depreciation and alternative investment opportunities through industry cooperation in India.

International Cooperation Opportunities India

India’s water-energy challenge presents opportunities for international cooperation and technical support:

Climate Finance: International climate funds could support India’s transition to water-efficient power generation. These resources could offset the higher costs of advanced cooling technologies and renewable energy systems.

Technology Partnership: Collaboration with accelerate India’s successfully addressing of similar challenges could acceleraIndia’sa’, and Denmark’survIsrael’sl’s experience with water-efficient industry and Israel’s renewable energy expertise offer relevant models.

Regional Cooperation: Water resources often cross national boundaries, and management. India’s relationships with neighbours could be strengthened through collaborative water management initiatives.

Innovation and Entrepreneurship

The water-energy challenge creates significant opportunities for innovation and entrepreneurshiphave the potential tohave the potential to

Technology Development: Indian companies and research institutions could become global leaders in water-efficient industrialcatalyseogies. Government support for research and development could catalyse private sector innovation.

Service Industries: Water management consulting, monitoring, and efficiency services represent growing markets. Indian firms can develop expertise that enables them to capitalise on export opportunities.

Financial Innovation: New financial instruments could support the transition to sustainable water and energy systems. Green bonds, impact investing, and blended finance mechanisms could mobilise private capital for public benefit.

Conclusion: A Defining Challenge in India’s

India’s water crisis, exacerbated by the expansion of coal power, represents one of the defining challenges of the 21st century. The scale of the problem—affecting over a billion people and threatening trillions of dollars in economic activity—demands responses commensurate with its magnitude.

The technical solutions exist. Advanced cooling technologies, renewable energy systems, and water management practices could enable sustainable development while meeting India’s growing energy needs. The challenge lies in creating political, economic, and social conditions that enable the rapid implementation of these solutions.

The stakes could not be higher. Failure to address the water-energy nexus could trigger humanitarian catastrophes, economic collapse, and social instability that would affect not just India but the entire global community. Success, however, could position India as a leader in sustainable development and provide a model for other nations facing similar challenges.

The next five years will be crucial. Decisions made now about power plant investments, water allocation policies, and technology adoption will determine whether India navigates this crisis successfully or faces the devastating consequences of resource conflict and economic disruption.

The choice is clear, even if the path forward is difficult. India must choose water security over short-term energy expansion, sustainable development over unsustainable growth, and long-term prosperity over immediate political gain. The alternative—a future of permanent water emergency and energy insecurity—is simply unacceptable for a nation with such tremendous potential and so many people depending on wise leadership.

The perfect storm of water scarcity and coal expansion need not become a perfect catastrophe. With decisive action, innovative thinking, and courageous leadership, India can still chart a course toward a sustainable and prosperous future. But time is running short, and the window for action is closing rapidly. The moment for half-measures and incremental change. What remains is the urgent need for transformation on a scale and at a speed that the crisis demands.

Thirst in the Furnace: Singaporeans’ Journey Through India’s Water Crisis

A story of adaptation, resilience, and the human cost of development

Chapter 1: The Assignment

Mei Lin had always taken water for granted. Growing up in Singapore, the familiar blue logo of PUB adorned every tap, every building, every reminder that water was as reliable as sunrise. Even during the brief afternoon thunderstorms that sent everyone scurrying for cover, she knew that by evening, clean water would flow endlessly from her kitchen faucet.

Now, standing in the sweltering heat, Solapur’s primary market at 7 AM, overseeing vendors measure out precious drops to wash their vegetables, she realised how naive that assumption had been.

“The tanker comes on Tuesdays and Fridays, we’re lucky,” explained Priya, her translator and local contact. “Sometimes it’s delayed. Sometimes it doesn’t come at all.”

Mei Lin wiped sweat from her forehead, though the sun had barely begun its daily assault. She was here on assignment for her Singapore-based consulting firm, hired by an Indian renewable energy company to assess the feasibility of solar installations in the state of Maharashtra. What should have been a straightforward technical evaluation had quickly become something much more complex.

The numbers didn’t add up. On paper, Solapur was ideal for solar development—enjoying abundant sunshine, available land, and growing industrial demand. But the reality on the ground told a different story. How could you build a sustainable energy future in a place where people couldn’t access the most basic resource for survival?

“The NTPC pla”t,” Priya continued, gesturing toward the massive cooling towers visible on the horizon, “they take water from Ujjani Dam, 120 kilometres away. Meanwhile, we wait in line with plastic containers s.”

Mei Lin pulled out her tablet to take notes, then realised the irony. The device in her hands consumed electricity, likely from the very coal plant that was competing with these people for water. Every email she sent, every video call back to Singapore, every moment she spent documenting this crisis was, in some small way, contributing to it.

Chapter 2: The Learning Curve

By her third day in Solapur, Mei Lin had developed new routines she never imagined needing. She woke at 5 AM to fill every available container when water pressure was highest. She carried a small bottle for teeth brushing—a habit that shocked local women who had long since learned to clean their teeth with minimal water.

“You’re learning”, laughed Sunita, a widow who had become MLin’s informal guide to water survival. “But you still use too mu”h.”

Sunita was right. Despite her best efforts, MLin’s water consumption remained three times higher than local residents. The habits of abundance were more challenging to break than she had anticipated.

Her hotel room became a laboratory for water conservation. She experimented with different bathing techniques, reusing water for multiple purposes, and timing her showers to coincide with the building’s water supply schedule. What began as a necessity gradually became a fascination with the intricate choreography of scarcity”.

“In Singapore, we worry about water dependency on Malays,” she wrote in her daily report back to her firm. “Here, they worry about water dependency for tomorrow.”

Singapore’s water challenges, while real, were managed through technology, policy, and long-term planning. Here, the crisis was immediate, personal, and overwhelming.

Chapter 3: The Coal Plant Visit

The NTPC Solapur plant sprawled across the landscape like a concrete city, its cooling towers releasing endless plumes of steam into the cloudless sky. Mei Lin had arranged a technical visit through the company’s contacts, hoping to gain an understanding of the water-energy nexus from the supply side.

“We operate under strict environmental guidelines”s,” explained Chief Engineer Raghavan as they toured the facility. “Water recycling, emission controls, efficiency optimisation—we follow all best practices”s.”

The statistics were impressive on paper. The plant recycled 70% of its cooling water, used advanced treatment systems, and employed hundreds of local workers. But walking through the facility, Mei L couldn’t shake the image of Sunita queuing for water with her plastic container”.

“How much water do you use daily?” she asked.

“Approximately 40 million litres during peak operations”s,” Raghavan replied matter-of-factly “That’s well within our allocated quota.”

Forty million litres. Mei Lin did a quick mental calculation: Singapore’s daily water consumption was approximately 430 million litres for nearly 5.9 million people. This single plant used almost 10% of Singapore’s total consumption to serve a fraction of the population.

“And the soured waters”

“Ujjani Dam, primarily. We have a dedicated pipeline. Very reliable.”

Very reliable for the plant, perhaps. But Mei Lin had seen the empty irrigation channels, the abandoned wells, the farmers who could no longer risk planting water-intensive crops. The plant’s water security came at the cost of everyone’s insecurity.

During the technical briefing, Mei Lin learned that the plant was operating at only 60% capacity due to issues with the coal supply. Even at reduced output, its water consumption remained massive. She wondered what would happen when demand increased, when the other planned expansions came online, when the competing claims for water became irreconcilable”.

“What happens during drought yea”s?” she asked.

Raghavan’s confident demeanour shifted slightly. “We have contingency plans. Alternative sources. The government understands the importance of maintaining the power supply.”

Translation: The plant would continue to operate regardless of local water stress. Power was essential; people would have to adapt.

Chapter 4: The Farmers’ Dilemma

MLin’s solar feasibility study required extensive surveys of potential installation sites, bringing her into contact with dozens of farmers whose land could host renewable energy projects. What she discovered challenged every assumption in her technical brief”.

“Look at the s,” said Ashok, a farmer whose family had worked the same land for four generations. He showed her a well that had been productive just five years earlier. Now, the water table had dropped so far that his pump could no longer reach i”. “They want to lease my land for solar panels. Maybe it’s better than nothing.”

The irony wasn’t lost on Mei Lin. Solar panels would provide clean electricity without consuming water—a perfect solution to the region’s energy and water crisis. But the farmers considering these leases were doing so because they could no longer farm, not because they saw renewable energy as a better option”.

“My grandfather grew sugarcane, he”e,” Ashok continued, kicking at the dry soil”. “My father switched to cotton when water became scarce. I’m thinking of giving up farming entire”y.”

This was the hidden cost of water competition that was never factored into economic analyses. Agricultural communities aren’t just losing water; they are losing their identity, their tradition, and their connection to the land. The transformation from farming to industrial land use represented a significant shift in how these communities interacted with their environment.

Mei Lin spent an afternoon wiAshok’sk’s wife, Meera, learning about the daily logistics of water scarcity. Meera woke at 4 AM to walk two kilometres to a community well, carrying empty containers that would be filled and hauled back before the sun made the journey unbearable. She had adapted cooking practices to use minimal water, given up kitchen gardens that once provided fresh vegetables, and learned to wash clothes in stages to maximise water efficiency.

“Before the power plant, water came every other d”y,” Meera explained. “We could plan. Now, we never kn”w.”

The unpredictability was perhaps the most challenging aspect to manage. When resources are scarce but predictable, communities develop coping strategies. When scarcity is both severe and unpredictable, it becomes impossible to plan for anything beyond immediate survival.

Chapter 5: Children’s Perspective

MLin’s most powerful education came from spending time at the local school, where she volunteered to teach English while gathering data on community conditions. Students’ essays about their daily lives revealed the crisis through the young eye”.

“My mother sends me to fetch water instead of going to math cla”s,” wrote 12-year-old Priy. don’t like missing school, but we need water to dri”k.”

The children had developed sophisticated knowledge about water sources, quality, and conservation that rivalled any technical manual. They could identify which wells were likely to be productive, which tankers carried the cleanest water, and how to stretch day’s water allocation across multiple needs”.

“Water is like go”d,” explained 14-year-old Rohan during a class discussion. “Ydon’tn’t waste gold, so ydon’tn’t waste wat”r.”

But the children also expressed dreams that seemed increasingly impossible in their water-constrained world. They wanted to be doctors, engineers, teachers—careers that required leaving their community for water-secure cities. The brightest students were already planning their escape, recognising that education was their only path to water security.

Mei Lin found herself becoming emotionally invested in these young people’s futures. She started a small scholarship fund with her own money, helping several students access better schools in nearby cities. But she also recognised the tragedy of this individual solution—success for these children meant abandoning their community, further depleting the local human capital needed for adaptation and resilience.

Chapter 6: The Monsoon Gamble

MLin’s stay in Solapur coincided with the pre-monsoon period, when the entire region held its breath waiting for the rains that would determine the year’s fate. The psychological tension was palpable—everyone knew that the next few weeks would determine whether the water crisis would ease or intensify.

She joined Sunita and other women for their daily water collection rounds, participating in conversations that revealed the complex calculus of survival. Should they plant crops in anticipation of good rains, risking seed investment if the monsoon failed? Should they send family members to cities for work, or keep them home to help with water collection”?

“Every year, we gamble,” Sunita explained as they waited in line at a public ta. “If the rains come, we survive another year. If they don’t.” She shrugged, leaving the sentence unfinished.

The arrival of the monsoon brought both relief and new challenges. The first rains triggered community celebrations, with children dancing in the streets and adults collecting every possible drop from rooftops and courtyards. However, heavy rains also overwhelmed the inadequate drainage systems, resulting in floods that contaminated water supplies and damaged the fragile infrastructure.

Mei Lin observed the NTPC plant during the monsoon season, noting how its operations remained largely unaffected by the extreme weather conditions that dominated local life. The plant had redundant systems, backup supplies, and contractual guarantees that insulated it from the seasonal variations that made life precarious for everyone else.

The contrast was striking. Industrial water users had achieved water security through technological advancements and capital investments, while residential users remained vulnerable to natural variability. The solution seemed obvious—extend the same technological approaches to residential water supply. But the scale of investment required was enormous, and the political will was lacking.

Chapter 7: The Health Consequences

As MLin’s stay extended from weeks to months, she began to notice the health impacts of water scarcity that weren’t immediately visible to short-term visitors. Children showed signs of chronic dehydration—stunted growth, frequent illnesses, difficulty concentrating in school. Adults suffered from kidney problems, skin conditions, and digestive issues related to poor water quality.

The local health clinic became a regular stop during her research. Dr. Kavita Sharma, the overworked physician who served the area, explained the medical consequences of water stress with clinical precision.

“We see more kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and dehydration-related complications every ye”r,” Dr. Sharma said. “During heat waves, we sometimes have more patients than be”s.”

Tdoctor’sr’s waiting room told the story of a community under stress. Elderly patients suffering from heat exhaustion, mothers with malnourished children, and workers with repetitive strain injuries from carrying water containers. These were the human costs of water scarcity that were often overlooked in economic analyses and development reports.

Mei Lin accompanied Dr. Sharma on house calls, witnessing the impossible choices families faced. Should they use their limited water for drinking, cooking, or medical care? Should they walk farther to access cleaner water, or accept contaminated supplies from a nearby source?

“In Singapore, we worry about water quality standards”s,” Mei Lin wrote in her journal. “Here, they worry about water existing”e.”

The mental health impacts were equally significant, though less visible. Chronic stress about water availability created anxiety disorders, depression, and family conflicts. Children showed signs of trauma from witnessing the parents’ daily struggles. The entire community lived in a state of perpetual emergency that took a psychological toll difficult to quantify but impossible to ignore.

Chapter 8: The Business Perspective

MLin’s renewable energy feasibility study had evolved far beyond its original scope. What began as a technical assessment of solar potential had become a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between water scarcity, energy development, and community resilience.

Her preliminary findings were troubling. While solar installations could provide clean electricity without consuming water, the communities most in need of economic development were also the least capable of supporting large-scale renewable projects. Water scarcity had created a vicious cycle where economic development was both urgently needed and practically impossible.

“We need jo”s,” explained Kuladeep Jangam, a local economic development official. “But companiwon’tn’t invest in areas without a reliable water supply. The power plant was supposed to attract other industries, but it had the opposite effect.”

The business case for renewable energy was compelling from a technical standpoint. Solar panels could generate electricity during peak demand periods, reducing strain on the grid while providing income to farmers through land leases. But the social and economic infrastructure needed to support such projects was being eroded by water scarcity.

Mei Lin found herself designing entirely new business models that addressed water and energy challenges simultaneously. What if solar installations included water purification systems? What if renewable energy projects provided guaranteed water access for local communities? What if the revenue from clean energy development were used to fund water infrastructure improvements?

These integrated approaches were more complex and expensive than traditional renewable energy projects, but they addressed the underlying challenges that made conventional development unsustainable. Mei Lin began to see her role not just as a technical consultant, but as a designer of adaptive systems that could thrive in water-scarce environments.

Chapter 9: The Adaptation Strategies

As her understanding of local conditions deepened, Mei Lin began to appreciate the remarkable creativity and resilience of communities facing water scarcity. What initially appeared to be a simple crisis of resource availability was actually a complex system of adaptation, innovation, and social organisation.

Women had developed intricate networks for sharing water information—who had supplies, where tankers were expected, which sources were reliable. Children had learned to identify water quality through taste, smell, and appearance with accuracy that impressed trained engineers. Farmers had experimented with drought-resistant crops, water-efficient irrigation techniques, and soil management practices that maximised moisture retention.

“We’ve become water experts”s,” joked Sunita during one of their conversations. “We judon’tn’t have certificates”s.”

The informal water economy was equally sophisticated. Entrepreneurs had created water delivery services, purification businesses, and storage solutions adapted to local conditions. Some farmers had pivoted from agriculture to water trading, using their wells and storage capacity to serve urban customers. Market forces were creating solutions that government programs had failed to provide.

Mei Lin documented these innovations in detail, recognising that they represented valuable knowledge that could be applied elsewhere. The traditional development model of imposing external solutions on local communities was clearly inadequate. Instead, successful interventions need to build on existing adaptation strategies while providing additional resources and technical support.

She began to see her role as a translator between local knowledge and external resources. Her technical expertise in renewable energy systems, combined with her growing understanding of local conditions, positioned her to design solutions that were both technically feasible and culturally appropriate.

Chapter 10: The Technological Bridge

MLin’s breakthrough came when she realised Singapore’s water technologies could be adapted to address Solapur’s challenges, but only if they were redesigned for very different economic and social conditions. The same membrane filtration systems used in Singapore’s NEWater plants could purify local water sources, but they needed to be simpler, cheaper, and more robust to operate in rural environments.

She began collaborating with local engineers and entrepreneurs to develop modified versions of advanced water treatment technologies. Solar-powered desalination systems could treat brackish groundwater. Atmospheric water generators could extract moisture from the air during humid periods. Decentralised treatment systems could serve individual communities without requiring massive infrastructure investments.

The key insight was that technological solutions needed to be embedded in social systems that could sustain them. The most sophisticated purification system was worthless if local communities couldn’t maintain it, afford it, or organise around it effectively”.

“Technology is not neutral”l,” she wrote in her final report. “The same innovation can either increase or decrease social inequality, depending on its implement”d.”

Working with local partners, Mei Lin developed pilot projects that combined water treatment with renewable energy generation. Solar panels provided power for water purification systems while generating excess electricity that could be sold to the grid. Communities could lease their land for renewable energy development while gaining guaranteed access to clean water.

These integrated systems were more expensive than conventional approaches, but they addressed multiple problems simultaneously. More importantly, they developed economic models that could be sustained by local communities, rather than relying on external subsidies or charity.

Chapter 11: The Personal Transformation

Six months in Solapur had changed Mei Lin in ways she couldn’t have anticipated. The confident engineer who had arrived with technical solutions and business plans had become someone who understood that development challenges couldn’t be solved through engineering alone.

Her daily routines had adapted to local conditions. She woke before dawn to collect water, planned her activities around heat and scarcity, and had learned to find satisfaction in simple pleasures that didn’t require resource consumption. More profoundly, her relationship with technology had evolved from assumption to appreciation”.

“I used to think Singapore’s water success was about technology”,” she wrote to her parent. “Now I understand about social organisation, political will, and long-term thinking.”

The contrast between Singapore’s water security and Solapur’s water crisis isn’t just about wealth or geography—it is about different approaches to collective action and resource management. Singapore had invested decades in building institutions, technologies, and social practices that ensured water security for all residents. India had the technical capacity to do the same, but lacked the political and social systems needed for implementation.

MLin’s personal relationships had also evolved. What began as professional interactions with local contacts had evolved into genuine friendships, built on shared experiences and mutual respect. Sunita had become a mentor in water conservation, teaching Mei Lin skills that no engineering textbook could provide. The schoolchildren she tutored had taught her about resilience, adaptability, and hope in the face of overwhelming challenges.

She found herself reluctant to leave, despite the obvious hardships. Life in Solapur had an intensity and immediacy that made her Singapore existence seem somehow superficial. Every drop of water had meaning, every moment of comfort was earned, and every small victory was celebrated.

Chapter 12: The Return

MLin’s return to Singapore was jarring. The abundance of water in fountains, swimming pools, automatic car washes, and endless showers seemed almost obscene after months of scarcity. She found herself turning off taps compulsively, collecting greywater for reuse, and feeling guilty about water consumption that was perfectly normal by Singaporean standards.

“You’ve changed”d,” observed her colleague David during her first week back “You’re different”t.”

He was right. Mei Lin had acquired a perspective that allowed her to see familiar things in a new light. Singapore’s water infrastructure, which she had always taken for granted, now appeared as an extraordinary achievement of engineering, planning, and social organisation. The small island nation had essentially solved the water-energy nexus that was tearing apart communities in India.

However, she also recognised the fragility of Singapore’s water security, which depended on stable relationships with Malaysia, continued technological advancements, and sustained political commitment to long-term planning. Climate change, political instability, or economic shocks could quickly undermine the systems that made abundance possible.

Her final report to the renewable energy company was unlike anything she had written before. Instead of focusing purely on technical feasibility and financial returns, she emphasised the social and environmental context that would determine project success. She recommended a fundamentally different approach to development—one that addressed water and energy challenges simultaneously while building local capacity for long-term sustainability.

“We cannot solve energy problems without solving water problems”s,” she concludes. “And we cannot solve either without addressing the social and political systems that create these challenges”s.”

Chapter 13: The Ongoing Commitment

MLin’s experience in Solapur had created obligations that extended far beyond her professional assignment. She had promised to help fund scholarships for local students, to connect communities with appropriate technologies, and to serve as a bridge between Indian water challenges and Singaporean solutions.

She established a small nonprofit organisation focused on water-energy integration in developing communities. Using her networks in Singapore’s technology sector, she facilitated partnerships between Indian communities and Singaporean companies. The relationships she had built during her stay became the foundation for ongoing collaboration and mutual learning.

Her Singapore apartment became a base for advocacy and awareness-raising. She organised presentations at universities, professional associations, and community groups, sharing the stories of people like Sunita, Ashok, and Dr. Sharma. These personal narratives proved more compelling than technical reports in helping Singaporeans understand the global water crisis”.

“Most people here have never experienced water scarcity,” she explained during one presentation. “But understanding these challenges is essential for appreciating what we have and preparing for what we might fa”e.”

The climate crisis made her message increasingly relevant to Singapore’s water security, while impressive, it remained vulnerable to changing precipitation patterns, rising sea levels, and regional instability. The lessons from water-stressed communities in India—about conservation, adaptation, and resilience—had direct application to Singapore’s long-term sustainability.

Chapter 14: The Broader Implications

MLin’s water-energy integration projects in India began to attract international attention. Development agencies, technology companies, and research institutions reached out to learn from her experience. What had started as a personal journey of adaptation had become a model for addressing global development challenges.

The pilot projects in Solapur demonstrated that integrated approaches to water and energy could be both technically feasible and economically sustainable. Solar-powered water treatment systems were generating clean electricity while providing reliable access to clean water. Communities were earning income from renewable energy while reducing their vulnerability to scarcity.

More importantly, these projects had created new forms of social organisation and collective action. Communities that had been divided by competition for scarce resources were now collaborating on solutions that benefited everyone. Women who had spent hours daily collecting water were now trained as technicians maintaining a renewable energy system”.

“Technology is an enabler, not a solution”n,” Mei Lin explained during a conference presentatio. “The real innovation is in how communities organise themselves to use technology for mutual benefit”t.”

Her work began to influence policy discussions at both national and international levels. Development agencies incorporated water-energy integration into their project guidelines. Technology companies began designing products specifically for water-scarce environments. Academic institutions established research programs focused on integrated resource management.

Chapter 15: The Long View

Five years after her initial assignment to Solapur, Mei Lin reflected on the changes in both her own life and the communities she had come to care about. The water crisis in India had not been solved—if anything, it had intensified as climate change accelerated and industrial expansion continued. But the responses to the crisis had evolved in ways that provided reasons for cautious optimism.

Communities had become more organised and politically active, demanding better water management from their governments. Technology solutions were becoming more affordable and better suited to local conditions. The renewable energy sector was growing rapidly, providing alternatives to water-intensive thermal power generation.

Most importantly, the conversation had undergone a change. Water scarcity was no longer seen as an inevitable consequence of development, but as a design challenge that could be addressed through better planning, appropriate technology, and inclusive governance.

MLin’s role had evolved from consultant to advocate to catalyst for broader changes in how development challenges were understood and addressed. Her experience in Solapur had taught her that the most important innovations were often social rather than technical—new ways of organising communities, new forms of cooperation, new approaches to sharing resources and responsibility”.

“The water crisis taught me that abundance and scarcity are not just about resource availability,” she wrote in her final journal entry from that first transformative stage “They’re about how we choose to organise our societies and relate to each oth”r.”

The lessons from Solapur had applications far beyond water management. They spoke to fundamental questions about sustainability, equity, and the kind of future that was both possible and desirable in an era of resource constraints and climate change.

Epilogue: The Continuing Journey

Today, Mei Lin divides her time between Singapore and various communities across Asia facing water-energy challenges. Her consulting firm has evolved into a social enterprise that designs integrated solutions for resource-constrained environments. The relationships she formed during her time in Solapur continue to inform her work and her understanding of what development can and should entail.

Sunita’s daughter, Priya, received one of MLin’s scholarships and is now studying environmental engineering at university. She plans to return to Solapur to work on water treatment technologies adapted for rural communities. Dr. Sharma has expanded her clinic and now provides telemedicine services to other water-stressed regions. Ashok has become a leader in renewable energy development, helping other farmers transition to clean energy production.

The transformation of individual lives reflects broader changes in how communities are responding to resource challenges. What began as a crisis of scarcity has evolved into an opportunity for innovation, cooperation, and building resilience.

MLin’s water bottles still carry labels from Solapur, a daily reminder of the privileges and responsibilities that come with abundance. She has learned to see water not as a commodity or utility, but as a connection to the broader web of relationships that sustain all life”.

“Every drop has a story,” she tells audiences during her presentation. “Every choice about how we use resources is a choice about what kind of world we want to create.”

The story of water in India—and the story of Singaporeans’ journey through that crisis—continues to unfold. The challenges remain enormous, but the possibilities for positive change have expanded in ways that seemed impossible when Mei Lin first arrived in Solapur with her technical reports and business plans.

The most important lesson she has learned is that the water crisis is not just about water, it’s about how we care for each other, how we organise our societies, and how we choose to live on a planet where abundance and scarcity will always coexist. The future of water is the future of humanity itself—and that future is still being written by people like Sunita, Priya, Dr. Sharma, Ashok, and Mei Lin, one drop, one choice, one act of care at a time.

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India’s Water and Power Problem